Lesson 59: The Federal Court System
In this lesson, we will talk about the federal court system, starting with
requirements for bringing a lawsuit, what parties are involved, and procedural
rules. We will learn about the three tiers that make up the federal court
system – trial courts, appellate courts, and the US Supreme Court. Finally, we
will discuss several other types of courts that exist.
For a case to be brought before a court,
a few basic requirements have to be met. The first is jurisdiction; the court
must have the authority to decide a case. Not all courts have the authority to
decide all cases. Where a case arises and what its subject matter is are two
jurisdictional issues.
For example, when we are
talking about federal courts, one jurisdictional issue is whether or not the
case involves a Federal Question. This means a question that has to do with the
U.S. Constitution, acts of Congress, or treaties. A federal question provides a
basis for federal jurisdiction.
Another basis for federal jurisdiction is Diversity of Citizenship. That is the
condition that exists when the parties to a lawsuit are from different states
or when the suit involves a U.S. citizen and a government or citizen of a
foreign country.
If a case does not involve a federal question or diversity of citizenship,
a federal court would not have jurisdiction; the case would have to
be brought before a state court.
In addition to jurisdiction,
another judicial requirement is called Standing to Sue.
Standing to sue refers to the requirement that
the party bringing a lawsuit have a sufficient connection to
and harm from the law or action being challenged.
It also includes the concept of Justiciable (pronounced just-tish-a-bul)
Controversy. That means that it is a controversy that is real and substantial,
as opposed to hypothetical or academic.
The parties in most lawsuits are
the plaintiff and defendant. The plaintiff brings the suit and the defendant is
the one it is brought against. Litigate is the official term for carrying on a
lawsuit; it means to engage in a legal proceeding or seek relief in a court of
law.
Sometimes, litigation is conducted by an interest group. Other times, when an
interest group is not directly involved in a lawsuit but is interested in the
outcome, they will file an Amicus Curiae (pronounced ah-mee-kous kur-ee-eye)
Brief, which is a brief filed by a third party. Amicus curiae is Latin for
"friend of the court."" This happens in most civil liberties cases and more
than a third of cases involving business matters.
When there is more than one person in a class affected by the outcome of a case,
an interest group or other plaintiffs may bring what is called a Class-Action
Suit. That is a lawsuit filed by an individual seeking damages for "all persons
similarly situated." An example would be a lawsuit against a company whose
product harmed many of its customers.
In the interest of efficiency,
there are
procedural rules in place that guide the litigation process. Certain procedural
rules establish the order that things take place in court while others protect
the rights of the involved parties.
There are procedural rules that apply to
a specific case such as court orders that a judge might give. If parties do not
comply, they can be found in contempt. Parties can be taken into custody,
fined, or both.
For civil contempt, all a party has to do to
avoid punishment is comply with the order. For criminal contempt, which
includes obstructing the administration of justice or disrespecting the rules
of the court, the party cannot avoid punishment.
The court system is made up of a three-tiered model. Most cases begin in
Trial Court or the first tier. The U.S. District Courts are set up for that
purpose.
There are different types of trial courts. The U.S. District Courts are
courts of General Jurisdiction, which means they have jurisdiction that is not
significantly restricted. A court of general jurisdiction can hear a broad
range of cases.
The rest of the courts on the bottom tier, such as tax courts, bankruptcy
courts, and territorial courts are courts of Limited Jurisdiction. That means
their authority is limited to dealing with certain types of claims, such as tax
claims or bankruptcy petitions.
If a party is not satisfied with the outcome of a court decision,
they can take it to an Appellate Court.
An Appellate Court is a court having jurisdiction to review cases and
issues that were originally tried in lower courts.
Thirteen U.S. Courts of Appeals exist throughout the country. Twelve are
set up to cover a certain geographical region and they hear appeals from all
the courts within their jurisdiction. The 13th U.S. Court of Appeals is called
the Federal Circuit and has its own appellate function, hearing certain
government cases and suits against the government itself.
Appeals are not trials that
are redone before a judge to see if they'll go a certain way. Instead, a panel
of judges reviews the transcripts and all other records of the case to decide
whether or not there was an error.
The top tier of this three-tiered model is the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme
Court can act as a trial court in huge cases that involve a state or a foreign
diplomat, but it mainly acts as an appellate court. It hears cases from federal
appellate courts as well as the highest state courts. It only reviews state
supreme court cases if there is a federal question.
Federal administrative agencies can have administrative law judges who make
decisions concerning the rules of their agencies. It is more efficient than
tying up a court. If a party has a dispute over a rule established by an
agency, it will first deal with an administrative law judge. Only when all
internal agency appeals processes have been tried can a party go outside of the
agency and take the case to a federal court.
The war on terrorism has brought about the existence of an interesting trial
court with limited jurisdiction. The FISA Court, established by the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, is a specialized court that meets in
secret.
It has the power to issue warrants to
place surveillance on certain individuals suspected of being spies. The records
are not made public. The hearings are not public and the judges are secretly
appointed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court with no other authority in
the review process.
Another interesting court with special powers was created as a response to
the 1995 Oklahoma bombing. Even though the perpetrators were citizens of the
United States, the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996
resulted in the creation of an alien "removal court" that hears cases involving
suspected "alien terrorists."
Unlike the FISA courts, however, these are
public hearings. Since it is considered a hearing for deportation rather than
an actual criminal trial, the defendant has limited rights. For example, the
prosecution does not have to follow certain procedural rules. Also, the
defendant cannot see the evidence that the prosecution used to secure the
hearing.