-The emergence of political parties
-The first transition of power
-Dirty politics
-Foreign interference in an election
-Anti-immigrant laws and voter suppression
-An attack on free speech and opposition
-A Quasi-War
-The cost of war

[SLIDE 1]

Political parties emerge because of divergent perspectives. Often these different viewpoints are tied to divergent self-interests. How we define ourselves and our country, how we view our relationship to the government, what we identify as problems, and how we think those problems should be solved—all these feed into the development of political parties. 

[SLIDE 2]

In Washington's 1796 final written address upon leaving office, he warned about the dangers of political parties. They can distract government from effective functioning, he argued, and promote baseless jealousies among groups of citizens. His warnings came in the context of the two opposing parties that had recently arisen within the government—Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Part, and Hamilton's Federalist Party. Washington had remained neutral in the conflict between Britain and France caused by the French Revolution, but Democratic-Republicans had aligned with France, while Federalists supported closer ties with Great Britain. Washington feared such sectionalism could tear the country apart. One important point: the Republican party of Jefferson is not the same Republican Party of today.

[SLIDE 3]

Hamilto's political views were influenced by the British model of rule by the aristocracy, people felt most capable to rule. Jefferson believed government had to consist of participation of the populace, something closer to the ideals of the French Revolution, which he was reluctant to criticize.

[SLIDE 4]

In that first election after the founding president, the Republican ticket was Virginian Thomas Jefferson and vice presidential candidate Aaron Burr of New York. John Adams of Massachusetts was the sitting vice president and the most likely candidate for the Federalists, but Hamilton favored South Carolinian Thomas Pinckney, who had negotiated the Treaty of San Lorenzo less than a decade before. Because of the treaty, Pinckney was popular in the south and west, while Adams was too independent a thinker for Hamilton's taste. Others, though, viewed the independent-minded Adams as a man of integrity, a statesman in the style of Washington, someone who would be above factionalism and could hold the country together. Adams had been altogether dissatisfied with his role as Washington's vice president. Of the vice presidential office he wrote to his wife Abigail: "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.” As president, however, he would be able to flex his muscles.

[SLIDE 5]

Hamilton plotted to get Pinckney elected by having Pinckney supporters cast only one of their votes instead of two. Adams supporters learned of the plan and also only cast one vote—for Adams. Because of this infighting within the Federalist party over whom to support, Adams won the most votes, but the second-most votes went to Jefferson. This meant a Federalist president, but a Republican vice president! Fortunately, Adams and Jefferson had long been friends despite their differences of opinion.
The peaceful transfer of presidential power is one of the great and distinctive features of American politics. It happened for the first time when John Adams assumed the office of the presidency. Nevertheless, disunity would dog the Adams presidency.

[SLIDE 6]

Angered over Jay's Treaty with Britain and the anti-French rhetoric of the Federalists, France thought it expedient to try to influence the American election in favor of the pro-French Jefferson. When Adams won, they broke off relations with America. Although he wanted a diplomatic solution, Adams made clear that he would not succumb to any sense of American inferiority to the European colonial powers. Adams' delegation to France was kept cooling its heals while it was pointedly ignored by the French government. Some agents of the French foreign minister Talleyrand demanded bribes before negotiations would be allowed to begin. This was not an uncommon practice at the time, but the delegation was indignant. When Americans learned how their representatives were being treated, they were united in their anger over this overt disrespect. With American sentiment unified, the Federalist Adams was able to press his Federalist Congress for action.

[SLIDE 7]

A country unified in its anger toward France, anger which Adams had helped flame, and with a Federalist Congress and president, determines to grow its military, resulting in a new Department of the Navy and a standing army. Although America reacts forcefully to the threat to its trading ships, war is never officially declared, so this military action came to be known as the "Quasi-War.” Adams' presidency would be taken up with this sea war with France. 

[SLIDE 8]

The Federalists took advantage of the anti-French sentiment to go after their Republican opponents, just as Washington had warned could happen were parties to develop. Federalists in Congress believe that the Republicans are a threat to national security. Many immigrants had been drawn to the new country based on Jefferson's rhetoric about "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” They especially liked his condemnation of the aristocracy and emphasis on opportunities for the broader citizenry. The Federalists saw new immigrants as probable Republican supporters and therefore a threat to their ideals. They passed anti-immigration laws to limit their influence.

[SLIDE 9]

It may seem odd that anti-immigrant sentiment would develop at such an early stage in a country made up of European outsiders, but that is what occurred. The Federalist Congress passed three laws to limit the influence of immigrants, and a fourth to limit opposition. These four were signed into law by President John Adams in 1798. The Naturalization Act made it harder to become a citizen, thereby excluding recent immigrants from the political process. The Alien Acts authorized the president to imprison or deport anyone deemed troublesome, whether simply a non-citizen or from a hostile country. The Sedition Act suppressed speech against the government, particularly targeting the partisan Republican press of the time. Critics realized that these laws were a Federalist attempt to silence opposition and that they were a violation of the First Amendment's guarantees of free speech and a free press. Because the judiciary was likewise controlled by Federalists, opponents took their cases to the state governments

[SLIDE 10]

The Alien and Sedition Laws were viewed by Democratic-Republicans as anti-democratic, stepping on American civil liberties. Madison and Jefferson each drafted separate resolutions for state legislatures arguing that the federal government had no authority to exercise power not specifically delegated to it in the Constitution. Both resolutions were based on the Tenth Amendment, which states that if a power isn't granted by the Constitution to the federal government or prohibited by the Constitution to the states, that power belongs to the states or to the people. They argued that the federal government had no authority to make laws like the Alien and Sedition Acts and that the states could block them. Madison argued the states could collectively overrule the federal government; Jefferson argued each state could separately interpose itself between the federal government and its citizens. Although the resolutions garnered widespread attention, they didn't garner widespread support. The resolutions passed in their respective legislatures, but no other states followed their lead.

[SLIDE 11]

The Quasi-War had to be paid for. Hamilton's preferred way of raising revenue was tariffs and excises, but now an additional heavy land tax was added. All of these taxes hit the poorer people hardest. In 1799, armed Pennsylvania Dutch farmers launched yet another tax revolt. If you are counting, this is the third in the 18th century: Shays' Rebellion, the Whiskey Rebellion, and now Fries' Rebellion. Thirty men were put on trial. John Fries and two others were convicted of treason and sentenced to hang. In the end, President Adams pardoned them all, saying they were as ignorant of the language as they were of the law. He blamed the opposition party. The outcome was that German Americans rejected the Federalist party. Many felt the Federalists had overreacted to a minor event.

[SLIDE 12]

While emotions were still running high over the Fries' Rebellion, Pennsylvania Republican George Logan went to France to try to encourage negotiations. He sent word back that Foreign Minister Talleyrand was ready to negotiate. Adams was eager to end the Quasi-War and sent an envoy. As Hamilton had feared, Adams forged his own path. Hamilton and his cronies angrily criticize Adams, so Adams fires three of Hamilton's supporters from his cabinet. He then pardons Fries, undercutting the Federalist judiciary. When Adams' envoy arrives, he finds that Napoleon Bonaparte has just overthrown the French government and conditions are ripe to end the conflict. America would remain neutral in the Napoleonic Wars in Europe.