-The role of European rivalries in conquest and settlement of the Americas
-The role of religion in European rivalries
-The beginnings of mixed heritage ancestry in Mexico
-The role of silver mining in enslavement and genocide on native populations

[SLIDE 1]

Europe was experiencing a crisis of authority as monarchs centralized their power against the rival powers of the nobility and the Church of Rome. Tensions among the various newly centralized realms of Europe continued to rise. Religion was often used as a tool in the political arsenal. Following Columbus' voyage in 1492, Pope Alexander VI granted Catholic Spain the right to newly discovered lands. This provided Spain with religious validation for its claims to the New World's lands and wealth, as well as incentive for maintaining its alliance with the Church. 

[SLIDE 2]

A number of elements combined to produce the Reformation. Many of those elements had little to do with spiritual belief and much to do with the politics of the time. Religion was a prime factor in crystallizing the new national identities.

[SLIDE 3]

The Spanish and Portuguese conquests in the Americas form a sad tale. America was raped of its resources and its people.

[SLIDE 4]

As we enter the 16th century, the pace of contacts will increase. In Mexico, a combination of disease, ruthless brutality, and strategic alliances with native populations allowed Cortés to conquer the Aztecs, bringing an end to the Aztec civilization.

[SLIDE 5]

La Malinche, also known as Doña Marina, was the translator for Cortés, aiding him in his exploits in Mexico. She was treated respectfully in old Spanish sources, but today is a controversial figure in Mexico. Many view her as a traitor, while others see her as the mother of Mexico. Feminists point out that she was a young woman caught between two worlds and without much choice.

[SLIDE 6]

Mestizo is a Spanish word indicating a mixed heritage ancestry.

[SLIDE 7]

The Spanish explorers were soldiers. They are termed Conquistadors because conquest was their goal. Their expeditions were designed to stake out a claim to territory and any wealth that might be found there.

[SLIDE 8]

Cortes and Pizarro robbed hoards of Incan and Aztec gold and silver. They then looked for the sources of the gold.

[SLIDE 9]

Gold is first discovered on Hispaniola, where Natives are forced into deadly labor in the mines. In Hispaniola, the colonists eventually turn to cattle and sugar production and begin importing African slaves to work the plantations.

[SLIDE 10]

Silver turned out to be more profitable than gold, but the infusion of coins created its own problems, leading to collapse of the Spanish economy early in the 17th century. Forced labor in the mines was a genocidal act against the native peoples.

[SLIDE 11]

Meanwhile, the overwhelming amount of wealth pouring in to the Spanish crown was making the rest of Europe uncomfortable. England feared the growing might of Spain. Henry VIII's actions against his wife, the Spanish Catherine of Aragon, as well as against the Church of Rome, did little to endear himself to Spain, but he avoided more direct confrontation. On the other hand, Henry did move to assert control in Ireland, which he did through land confiscation and colonization.

[SLIDE 12]

Spain saw itself as a staunch defender of the Church of Rome, so it was necessary for Philip to intervene when he saw the Church threatened within his realm. The Low Countries were prospering. Antwerp was the premier commercial center of northern Europe. But Antwerp in particular held a large number of Calvinists, while Philip was staunchly and intolerantly Catholic.

[SLIDE 13]

In addition to Spain's problems in the Low Countries, Spanish hegemony on the seas was beginning to encounter difficulties. Elizabeth's half-sister and rival, the brutal Queen Mary, had been married to Philip II, so there was no love between Elizabeth and Philip. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth now engaged English privateers like Sir Francis Drake to seize Spanish ships carrying New World silver and other goods. She also made the first efforts at establishing British colonies in North America.

[SLIDE 14]

Social classes in Europe had changed since the medieval period, but class was still a core feature of the various European countries. With the growth of overseas ventures, people able to invest in those ventures became more important. At the same time, the work of laborers, peasants, and lower-level artisans was being valued less. Emigration is viewed as a way to solve domestic poverty among the workers.

[SLIDE 15]

The influx of wealth to Spain had an unexpected consequence that would lead to problems throughout Europe.

[SLIDE 16]

A number of factors played into Spain's weakening and loss of dominance. We will focus on only one: Spain's wealth, in a way, was one important reason for its downfall. Prices began to skyrocket as too much money was available for buying too few goods and too little food. Workers' wages, on the other hand, were stagnating, and people began to go hungry. The problem spread throughout Europe, but Spain in particular was vulnerable because it had poor agricultural resources. And eventually, Spain's sources of New World silver began to decline. Then, less money was available for buying the imported food Spain needed.

[SLIDE 17]

In response to growing threats to his dominance in both the Old World and the New, Philip decides to attack England. With 132 warships, 3,000 cannons, and 30,000 troops, he intends to end Elizabeth's rule. England—unexpectedly—is able to defeat the mightiest navy of the time. 

[SLIDE 18]

Today we expect that the boundaries of a country's territory will, for the most part, be contiguous. That was not the case when powerful monarchs had ancestral and other claims to far distant lands. Spain continued to be powerful even after the catastrophic defeat of its armada. This is the map of Spanish control at the start of the 17th century.

[SLIDE 19]

However, Spain's monopoly on New World colonization was broken, and its ability to suppress Protestantism was impacted as well. The Dutch Republic emerges as a formidable power in its own right.

[SLIDE 20]

As a result of hostilities with Spain, English nationalism becomes identified with the Protestantism of the Church of England.