-Challenges facing Native Americans -Native American responses and adaptations -Defense and Rebellion as responses -Alliances as a response -Migration as a response -Climate change adaptations -Two animals of the Plains: American bison and Spanish horses [SLIDE 1] [SLIDE 2] Each of the approximately 70 Pueblo villages before Spanish colonization was politically autonomous and governed by a council composed of the heads of religious societies. [SLIDE 3] Indian groups forced to pay tribute to the Aztec empire had assisted Spanish conquest in order to rid themselves of Aztec rule. Their situation did not improve, however, as Spain became their new tributary overlord. Although Mexico was mainly subdued after the first horrible decades of Spanish presence, the Spaniards then pushed north into new territories. Don Juan de Oñate, sometimes called the Last Conquistador, explored north into New Mexico and then into the Great Plains, where he became the first European to describe the tallgrass prairie. His final expedition was to the Lower Colorado River Valley. His interactions with Native groups were often violent. [SLIDE 4] Oñate crosses the Rio Grande and claims the land for Spain. Acoma Pueblo when the residents refused to provide the Spaniards with supplies needed by the Pueblo for the winter. The terrific brutality horrified even the Spanish authorities. Oñate remains a controversial figure in New Mexico. A statue of him at the Northern Rio Grande National Heritage Center In New Mexico had its right foot chopped off in 1997, close to the 400th anniversary of his actions [SLIDE 5] The Franciscans were the earliest religious order to arrive in New Spain, following on the heals of Cortés. Their conversion efforts necessarily included the destruction of native culture. Over time, Native populations made what accommodation they could to survive under foreign domination. This sometimes meant adopting a veneer of Christianity while maintaining traditional practices. [SLIDE 6] Rebellion was one of the possible responses to unwanted incursion, and it came in the form of the Pueblo Revolt, a long-lasting insurrection against Spanish control and Spain's attempts to destroy Native culture and identity. [SLIDE 7] [SLIDE 8] The first contacts between Spanish conquerors and Native Americans in the Southeast were sometimes peaceable but often violent. At one point, de Soto appears to have been used as a pawn in a pre-existing feud between two tribes. These earliest Spanish efforts did not immediately result in colonization, and both de Soto and de León died as a result of their efforts. [SLIDE 9] Once military garrisons were in place, missionary efforts spread over the area and missions are established. [SLIDE 10] Although there were few Spaniards in Florida and the Southeast, their unintended impact was great as disease spread and survivors among the tribes were forced to adapt. [SLIDE 11] Different groups adapted by banding together for their mutual benefit. Later, when they again encountered newcomers from Europe, they made allies among the European nationalities in ways they believed would benefit their own interests. [SLIDE 12] [SLIDE 13] Reorganization among the Northeastern tribes resulted in two opposing alliances that would vie for control of the fur trade with Europeans. [SLIDE 14] The French policy of integrating with natives created family bonds among the trading groups that worked to the advantage of the Huron alliances. [SLIDE 15] The Hurons were harvesting furs on land that had once been Iroquois territory. The Iroquois wanted this lucrative land back, but the well-established Huron alliances gave the Hurons the advantage, particularly when it came to obtaining advanced weaponry. [SLIDE 16] The arrival of the Dutch provided the Iroquois with a viable alternative to the French. The outcome will be the Iroquois making war against the Mohicans, an example of tribal warfare as a result of the European fur trade. Under the influence of the Europeans, the Iroquois overhunted their own fur territory and sought new sources in adjacent territories held by others. [SLIDE 17] [SLIDE 18] Initially, there was little direct contact between Plains Indians and Europeans, but cultural change was occurring nonetheless. [SLIDE 19] Climate cooldown had both positive and negative effects. Growing seasons were shorter, but buffalo increased. [SLIDE 20] Adaptations to climate change were necessary and took different forms. [SLIDE 21] Native American groups are grouped by scholars according to language families. There are around 30 Algonkian languages, grouped by region. [SLIDE 22] Some new migrants were fleeing the violence and disease that plagued the Eastern Woodlands. Some turned to hunting the plentiful buffalo for survival, but alliances between hunters and agriculturalists increased the survival chances for both of them. [SLIDE 23] Siouan–Catawban is a language family located primarily in the Great Plains, Ohio, and Mississippi, and included the Crow and Hidatsa, Dakota, and Mandan. [SLIDE 24] The buffalo also began to play a central role on the Southern Plains, where it was traded by the hunters for items produced in villages. Another animal began to play a role in this economy: the horse. [SLIDE 25] The value of the horse for the hunting cultures of the Plains became quickly apparent, and their use spread from the Southern Plains groups to Northern ones. A lively trade in horses spawned another new commodity valuable enough to trade for horses: young Indian slaves to fill the labor shortage.